Mechanical testing of cancellous bone (Bio-mechanics) Essay

Mechanical testing of cancellous bone (Bio-mechanics) - Essay Example Therefore, the plotting of stress curves was done. Basing on the intercept and the slope of the graph obtained in this experiment, compressive strength, the stiffness, the zero strain point, as well as the failure strain were then calculated. It was found that density was in directly proportion with the three mechanical properties (stiffness, strength, and failure strain) for samples from porcine, as well as bovine bone. Following these results, it was concluded therefore, that the mechanical behaviour of cancerous bone in both pig and the cow is almost similar although it was somewhat lower in the cow samples relative to that from porcine. Trabecular bone or the cancerous bone is the porous material that often represent a type of osseous tissue forming bones (Jee, 1996). Research indicates that trabecular bone has a higher surface area relative to other types of osseous tissues (Foss, 1992). Contrary, it has been found to have less density and stiffness (Currey, 1987). Arguably, the cancerous bone mechanical behaviour is somewhat similar to the other related cellular materials including the polymeric. This is because of its possessing a cellular structure consisting of the connected network of plates and rods (Bursten, & Frankel, 1999). There are contributing factors to the cancerous bone strength with bone density identified as one such factor. According to WHO (1994) there is need to determine the fracture risks using bone mineral density. It is also worth noting that other than the density of the bone, testing conditions, as well as the species of the animal are essential factors affecting the stiffness and strengt h of cancerous bones (Bell, Olive & Grabb, 1988). From the explored body of literature, it is evident that there are numerous experiments that have been conducted with a view of evaluating the density, and strength of a bone. However, there are limited research conducted on dependent of the strength of the cancerous bone on either

How far do you agree with Dr Johnson Essay Example for Free

How far do you agree with Dr Johnson Essay Samuel Johnson, or Dr Johnson as he was sometimes referred as, was a great English author who made enduring contributions to English literature. Being such a distinguished and renowned author, his views on literature were and still are today, stern and well-known. However, I have views both agreeing with and opposing Dr Johnsons view that Miltons work lacks human interest. Firstly, human interest strictly speaking, is about everyday people just like us, being able to relate to a story, and possibly learn something from it and put it into practise in our own lives. The epic poem Paradise Lost concerns the Christian story of the Fall of Man, while dealing with more present topics such a marriage and politics. Miltons purpose, as stated in book I, is to justify the ways of God to men. This is a good base to start my argument on, which is that I do not agree with Dr Johnson, and believe that Miltons work does hold human interest. By involving politics and marriage into his works, this is surely of human interest, as people will be curious and inquisitive about how things worked back then, and it is therefore of human interest if people want to learn about it. Milton states the purpose of his epic poem, and it is obvious that he intended Paradise Lost to educate people about God. If anything, Paradise Lost holds universal human interest. The event in the poem concern the whole of the human race, as the single event of disobeying God and plucking a single apple has moulded the destiny of the world, and it should surely be of interest to anyone who is born into this world. People must be, and generally are, curious about how their world evolved and how it reached the state of where it is now. If people are curious about this and eager to be educated on this topic, then they may read Miltons work to learn about these events, and consequently are showing signs of human interest. Looking more in depth into Christianity, Christians believe that due to the event of Eve picking the apple, all humans are born with sin, and it is whether people choose to act on it or not that defines us. However, a big factor to consider is whether people actually believe in God or not. Atheists wouldnt take any notice of this argument, let alone and interest of Miltons epic poem Paradise Lost. This is my argument agreeing with Dr Johnson and saying that Miltons work does lack human interest. To an atheist, they would take absolutely no interest in the Fall of Man, and wouldnt believe anything about God and heaven. Also being literal about it, for anyone, let alone an atheist, it is hard to relate to an event that happened such a long time ago, and we only know to be true from a book and lots of believers. How do we even know that this happened? How do we even know God exists? These are all questions that are very important when answering this question. Many different theological issues are presented in the epic poem, such as fate, the introduction of sin and death into the world, as well as the nature of angels, heaven, hell and Satan. However, sin and death cannot be ignored, even by atheists, as these two issues are both around us and will happen to us in our lives. So, this means that people are able to relate to these issues in Miltons works, and therefore showing signs of human interest. Also, nowadays, we are not scared of disobeying something that will have as huge of a consequence as picking the apple did. Anything that we do today is not going to have an huge impact on the world, affecting all of its inhabitants and the world itself. So, in this sense, it is hard to relate to Miltons work, and it can be said that it does lack human interest. Another literal relation that we can have with Paradise Lost is the consequences of picking the fruit relating to God, not just the event itself. Not only did God show his mercy and temperance in their punishments, but he also displayed his love and compassion through the Son, Jesus Christ. Atheist or not, everyone learns about Christ and the Fall and it is whether you chose to believe it or not which is what makes people an atheist. In this sense, Paradise Lost does not lack human interest as it can always be related to and people are always taught about it, even if it was in the classroom and compulsory, or by their parents. The knowledge of Jesus Christ and the garden of Eden is general knowledge, and therefore must be of human interest. Also, the hard work that men and women have to endure, and the pain of giving birth for a woman are all consequences of Eve picking the apple off the tree and disobeying Gods only rule. And therefore, as we all experience hard work, and the majority of women experience child birth, we can all relate to this in some way or another. So, having analysed and read through this epic poem, I am going to disagree with Dr Johnson that Miltons work lacks human interest. I think that everyone can relate to Miltons work in one way or another. You could say, that if you were not able to relate to his work, then you havent related to the story of Creation and havent learnt about God or Christ. Also, you do not need to believe in all of the Creation stories and the Garden of Eden to have related to Miltons work. Above all, Milton is a fantastically talented writer, and that alone is a reason as to why Miltons work does contain human interest. Bibliography and Webography: The Bible The Complete English Poems John Milton www. wikepedia. org www. sparknotes. com.

Mind Map: Counselling Theories and Remote Mentoring

Mind Map: Counselling Theories and Remote Mentoring A mind-map design rationale According to Tony Buzzan[1], the goal of a Mind Map is to format information in a two dimensional fashion, in an easily retrievable format that is easy to review, allowing for easy association. The Mind Map is a method of reviewing great quantities of information â€Å"at a glance[2]†.Mind Maps are used as alternative methods of organising information in a manner that obviate linear thinking, in an attempt to work the way the brain works[3]. Different methods of Mind Mapping range from computer programs to hand drawing; with free-form hand drawing the most effective for incorporating brain-storming. Russell[4] states that during the Mind Mapping process, one should not â€Å"hold back† on ideas or thoughts, but include what comes to mind without judgement or boundaries. Landsberger[5] suggests that the Mind Map should develop based on the direction a topic takes rather than limitations imposed on mapping methodology or self-imposed boundaries. Within the field of psychotherapy and psychotherapeutic training, mentoring is an important concept. With the growth, development and generalised reliance in our society on computers along with the development of virtual working and training grounds, the concept of e-mentoring, or online mentoring is a high growth area and is one achieving attention in the literature. Therefore, this essay will focus on the development of a Mind Map with the central theme of e-mentoring. Specific topics related to detailed development within psychological schools of thought are considered beyond the scope of the current essay and as such, as explicitly omitted. Mind Map Design With the central theme of e-mentoring, there were many topics that vied for prominence as secondary central themes, however, four became primary in early thoughts on development: Training in psychotherapy Mentor Electronics/Computer Psychotherapy Based on the four pronged conceptualisation, the original mental image presented itself as the Greek symbol for psych, the three pronged fork with a base extension. In this case, the base extension was the use of computers and technology which is the underlying foundation for an e-mentoring programme. Unfortunately during the actual execution of the Mind Map development, so much information naturally flowed that the original mental picture of the design did not materialise. Mind Map researchers emphasise the use of colour in the design of one’s Mind Map[6],[7]. Colours were originally chosen for their visibility and distinctiveness from one another against the white background of the page, upon reflection. However, it is interesting to note the pink used for the mentor, as significant emphasis was on female mentor relationship issues and the generalised assumption that mentors would be female. Training in Psychotherapy was evidenced by turquoise coloured branches, which seems somewhat appropriate based in training needs being more clinical. Psychotherapy’s branch was in purple, also appropriate upon reflection, as the many modes and modalities of psychotherapy are about wellness; often represented in the media with purple. Finally, the surprising colour for computers and electronics, forming the base of the psych symbol was in green. One would normally not think of computers and technology as living, represented by green, however, in today ’s age, with technology being so important in our lifestyle and that of an e-mentoring programme, in many ways, computers represent life. Main branches in the design of a Mind Map are representative of sub-themes[8]. In this case, mentor, computers/electronics, psychotherapy and training in psychotherapy were all believed to be specific subdivisions of the e-mentoring process in the field of psychology/psychotherapy. Research states that sub-points are representative of additional levels of information, with the initial branches from the central theme representative of directly related important facts[9]. Although some Mind Map methods suggest linear composition[10] rather than free-flowing forms[11],[12], this writer chose to use a freer flowing format for the sub-themes presented. Russell[13] suggests using arrows, icons and other visual aids to show linkages whereas other researchers suggest using arrows to demonstrate connectivity[14]. Landsberger suggests the use of arrows with connectivity labels, even if the words are nonsense words with meaning attributable only to the Mind Map creator[15]. In this instance, linkages were depicted by double sided arrows, many of which were flexible and bended around objects or attributes. Several arrows/links representing relationships in the Mind Map designed around e-mentoring crossed between sub-themes or domains and due to colour coding and information congestion, were difficult to fully express. For example, the link between female mentor and psychotherapy was delineated as it is believed that the mentor role is in part counsellor[16]. Kotkov states that the mentee-mentor relationship is similar; based on the academic model, to that which transpires in the psychotherapeutic setting[17]. Another example is the integr ation between the four themes of cognitive behaviour therapy that are linked in the Mind Map: stimulus, thought, emotion and behaviour[18]. Looking to security risks inherent in the e-mentoring process, the link was drawn between emails and digital attachments[19],[20]. There were also very strong relationships/links apparent in the female mentor in the mother/daughter role, and in the mother mentor figure seen as the powerful parent[21],[22] that was noted via a linkage. A more convoluted, but none the less important linkage was illustrated in the psychotherapy branch by linking person-centred with relationships and effectiveness and critical engagement with both relationships and effectiveness, person centred with empathy and unconditional positive regard[23]. On the other hand, although concerns are shared about security, the security risks commented on through the integration of internet use noted by Kane[24] was not linked to the legal risks associated with mentoring noted by Heinrich[25] although both loosely relate to potential legal issues it was felt by this writer that internet security and the potential legal issues of the mentor-mentee relationship were distinct from each other. Personal Reflection As a personal approach to psychotherapy, this writer believes in a person centred approach that is heavily based on relationships for effectiveness in therapy. As a result, the links described above emphasising relationships as a key element of the psychotherapy sub-theme in the Mind Map demonstrates its lead in to person-centred psychotherapy. Other branches of the Mind Map explored other theories and therapeutic avenues, such as cognitive behavioural therapy, which were also important for display as evidencing those areas in which these theories no not fit within the structure of a person-centred approach. Lessons Learned and Conclusions The primary conclusion drawn from designing the Mind Map based on an e-mentoring (in the field of psychotherapy) central theme is the complexity and multiplicity of issues. While there are many that inter-relate and/or link with each other, the brain storming process involved served to spawn more ideas than originally thought, such that each of the original sub-themes could have actually become its own central theme in the design of a more detailed Mind Map. The original concept of designing the mind map was an exciting prospect – the central theme had been one I was projecting about as related to future needs. Thus, when the central theme was confirmed for the mind map it was believed that a unique opportunity presented itself to explore the central theme in a creative way allowing for free thinking, thinking outside the box, without any traditional or conventional boundaries. In many ways, although the mind map is unstructured in the creative process, it is still a structured development process as one drills down to more detailed concepts, issues and layers of a subject. While Landsberger[26] states that one should revise the mind map by erasing or editing, that seems to be contrary to the concept of mind mapping in the first place as a process which fosters creativity. Thus, upon reflection, without modifications, the current Mind Map feels cluttered. If one were to draw the mind map over again, the use of a sixth colour would be incorporated strictly to show links. Additionally, in the linkage process a variety of line types would be used to designate different linkages, for example a solid line to represent a direct relationship and a dotted or broken line to represent an indirect relationship. In many ways, staying focused was difficult. In the brain storming process, especially when one is not to make personal judgements, it is easy to get carried away. Thus, it appeared there was a fine line between free thinking and conforming. When getting near the edge of a page for example, the natural inclination was to think the branch was completely explored rather than rounding the corner or moving towards a free white space. Finally, the decision to hand-draw rather than use a computer program to create the map was a difficult one. The computer program was more likely to utilise its own intelligent system to draw the finished map, assure legibility and coherence. A hand-drawn mind map, on the other hand, was more likely to represent the structure in a creative manner rather than one obtained through linear thinking, as would be required for input into digital form. The most useful concept discovered in the creation of the mind map was ability to see links between concepts that might otherwise be left undiscovered. For example, when reviewing issues within psychotherapy of transference and countertransference; these were the same issues uncovered within the mentoring process, especially with the mixed feelings and power relationship structures of female mentors and mentees[27]. Another useful concept in the design and creation of the mind map was the discovery of how complex the issue of e-mentoring in the psychotherapy student environment. One tends to isolate conceptual topics and think of the central theme as very narrow when researching a topic. The mind-map process enabled a more creative perspective to draw out what one might consider ancillary themes only to discover they are major themes that interrelate and integrate with one another. In conclusion, this essay has explored design and development concepts of a mind map with the central theme e-mentoring in the psychotherapeutic and counselling environment. The design process was explored along with procedural strengths and weaknesses. In summation, the process of designing the mind map was believed a positive endeavour allowing for greater exploration. The result provided a grander view of the central topic and the ability to seek relationships between sub-topics or themes that might otherwise remain unnoticed. The ability to quickly see the entire picture painted via the diagram â€Å"at a glance† allowing the viewer to see all makes the mind map an excellent and effective learning tool. References Gannon, Joyce. Modern Mentoring. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette)2006. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-155116925.html [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Gawrylewski, Andrea. Taking Mentorship Online. The Scientist, 21, 83 85)2007. Heinrich, Kathleen T. Doctoral Advisement Relationships between Women: On Friendship and Betrayal. Journal of Higher Education, 66, 447 469)1995. Kane, Daniel. Long Distance Mentoring Over Email. US Fed News Service)2007. Kotkov, Benjamin. The Perils of Supervision Teaching in the Psychotherapy Setting. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 8)2005. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:134955706 [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Landsberger, Joe. Concept- or Mind-Mapping. Study Guides and Strategies)2008. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.studygs.net/mapping [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Mahoney, Michael J. Essential Themes in the Training of Psychotherapists. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 17, 43 59)1998. Mind Maps. Mind Tools, Ltd.)2008[Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newISS.01.htm [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Mulhauser, Greg. Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness in Counselling and Psychotherapy. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://counsellingresource.com/types/effectiveness.html [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Russell, Peter. How to Mind Map. The Spirit of Now)1997. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://peterrussell.com/MindMaps/HowTo.php [Accessed 29 June 2008]. Appendix A: Mind Map SENT UNDER SEPARATE COVER If you haven’t received it – please contact DD for retrieval. 1 [1] Cited in Mind Maps. Mind Tools, Ltd.)2008[Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newISS.01.htm [Accessed 29 June 2008]. [2] Mind Maps. [3] P. Russell. How to Mind Map. The Spirit of Now)1997. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://peterrussell.com/MindMaps/HowTo.php [Accessed 29 June 2008]. [4] Russell. [5] J. Landsberger. Concept- or Mind-Mapping. Study Guides and Strategies)2008. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.studygs.net/mapping [Accessed 29 June 2008]. [6] Mind Map. [7] Russell. [8] Russell. [9] Mind Map. [10] Landsberger. [11] Russell. [12] Mind Map. [13] Russell. [14] Mind Maps. [15] Landsberger. [16] B. Kotkov. The Perils of Supervision Teaching in the Psychotherapy Setting. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 8)2005. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:134955706 [Accessed 29 June 2008]. [17] Kotkov, 6. [18] G. Mulhauser, Greg. Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness in Counselling and Psychotherapy. [Online]. Retrieved from: http://counsellingresource.com/types/effectiveness.html [Accessed 29 June 2008]. [19] A. Gawrylewskia. Taking Mentorship Online. The Scientist, 21, 83 85)2007. [20] D. Kane. Long Distance Mentoring Over Email. US Fed News Service)2007 [21] Mahoney, Michael J. Essential Themes in the Training of Psychotherapists. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 17, 43 59)1998. [22] Heinrich, Kathleen T. Doctoral Advisement Relationships between Women: On Friendship and Betrayal. Journal of Higher Education, 66, 447 469)1995 [23] Mulhauser. [24] Kane. [25].Heinrich, 460. [26] Landsberger. [27] Heinrich, 447 – 469.

Clockwork Tales :: Clockwork Tales Short Story Essays

Clockwork Tales Tick-tock, tick-tock, tick-tock, tick-tock, tick-tock, tick-TONG! .............. "Yeah, I finally got that damn clock to stop," the man mumbled happily. "Now I can sit here and read in peace." He picked up his copy of Canterbury Tales, aching to find the insight that his professor swore was kept hidden within. He started once again. The Miller's Tale. "Hmm, I wonder how long it is." He started to flip through the pages one by one, counting them off. "One, two, three, four, five, . . . seventeen. Well, that's not so bad. If I could just get started on it." He looked down and started to read. "Whan that the Knight hadde thus his tale ytold." Tick-tock, tick-tock. "Dammit!" He jumped up out of the easy chair, and in doing so sent his literature book cascading across the room. "Damned clock. I'll show you what's up." The poor clock really didn't know what to make of this. After all, it was just sitting there, doing its job of counting the seconds, minute after minute, hour after hour. It was a good little clock. It was about the size of a baseball, and it's brass plating was polished to a gleaming shine. It fancied itself as attractive. People loved it. No one had ever told it to shut up before. This was all brand new to it. It wanted the man to be happy. It really did. But the man was far from that at the moment. His fair skinned face was mottled and flushed with rage. His blond hair was tousled and unkept, and looked as though he had just woken up. His shirt was untucked from his jeans in various spots, almost making him look like a bum. The clock ticked to itself again as the man stepped closer. It was still vaguely upset at the shoe that had been thrown at it a few minutes before. Violence just wasn't the answer, the clock believed. If you just waited, time would solve everything. It was inev itable. The man was just a few steps away now, and the clock was frightened. What would this man do to him? Would he tear out his gears, pull out his plugs, or would he merely smash him into the fireplace he was resting on, ending it all with single forceful blow. The clock's ticking sped up ever so slightly, half a second instead of a whole.

United Kingdom Political System

The United Kingdom is a unitary democracy governed within the framework of a constitutional monarchy, in which the Monarch is the head of state and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, on behalf of and by the consent of the Monarch, as well as by the devolved Governments of Scotland and Wales, and the Northern Ireland Executive.Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as in the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The highest national court is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The UK political system is a multi-party system. Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.Before the Labor Party rose in British politics the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament. The current Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government is the first coalition since 1974.With the partition of Ireland, Northern Ireland received home rule in 1920, though civil unrest meant direct rule was restored in 1972. Support for nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales led to proposals for devolution in the 1970s though only in the 1990s did devolution actually happen. Today, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each possess a legislature and executive, with devolution in Northern Ireland being conditional on participation in certain all-Ireland institutions.The United Kingdom remains responsible for non-devolved matters and, in the case of Northern Ireland, co-operates with the Republic of Ireland. It is a matter of dispute as to whether increased autonomy and devolution of executive and legislative powers has contributed to a reduction in support for independence. The principal pro-independence party, the Scottish National Party, won an overall majority of MSPs at the 2011 Scottish parliament elections and now forms the Scottish Government administration, with plans to hold a referendum on negotiating for independence. In Northern Ireland,the largest Pro-Belfast Agreement party, Sinn Fà ©in, not only advocates Northern Ireland's unification with the Republic of Ireland, but also abstains from taking their elected seats in the Westminster government, as this would entail taking a pledge of allegiance to the British monarch. The constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified, being made up of constitutional conventions, statutes and other elements such as EU law. This system of government, known as the Westminster system, has been adopted by other countries, especially those that were formerly parts of the British Empire.The United Kingdom is also responsible for several dependencies, which fall into two categories: the Crown dependencies, in the immediate vicinity of the UK, and British Overseas Territories, which originated as colonies of the British Empire. The British Monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the Chief of State of the United Kingdom. Though she takes little direct part in government, the Crown remains the fount in which ultimate executive power over Government lies.These powers are known as Royal Prerogative and can be used for a vast amount of things, such as the issue or withdrawal of passports, to the dismissal of the Prime Minister or even the Declaration of War. The powers are delegated from the Monarch personally, in the name of the Crown, and can be handed to various ministers, or other Officers of the Crown, and can purposely bypass the consent of Parliament. The head of Her Majesty's Government; the Prime Minister, also has weekly meetings with the sovereign, where she may express her feelings, warn, or advise the Prime Minister in the Government's work.According to the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom, the monarch has the following powers: Domestic Powers The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, guided by the strict convention that the Prime Minister should be the member of the House of Commons most likely to be able to form a Government with the support of that House. In practice, this means that the leader of the political party with an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons is chosen to be the Prime Minister.If no party has an absolute majority, the leader of the largest party is given the first opportunity to form a coalition. The Prime Minister then selects the other Ministers which make up the Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments. About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet and approximately 100 ministers in total comprise the government. In accordance with constitutional convention, all ministers within the government are either Members of Parliament or peers in the House of Lords.As in some other parliamentary systems of government (especially those based upon the Westminster System), the executive (called â€Å"the government†) is drawn from and is answerable to Parliament – a successful vote of no confidence will force the government either to resign or to seek a parliamentary dissolution and a general election. In practice, members of parliament of all major parties are strictly controlled by whips who try to ensure they vote according to party policy. If the government has a large majority, then they are very unlikely to lose enough votes to be unable to pass legislation.The Prime Mini ster and the Cabinet David Cameron, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2010) The Prime Minister is the most senior minister in the Cabinet. She/he is responsible for chairing Cabinet meetings, selecting Cabinet ministers (and all other positions in Her Majesty's government), and formulating government policy. The Prime Minister is the de facto leader of the UK government, since s/he exercises executive functions that are nominally vested in the sovereign (by way of the Royal Prerogatives). Historically, the British monarch was the sole source of executive powers in the government.However, following the rule of the Hanoverian monarchs, an arrangement of a â€Å"Prime Minister† chairing and leading the Cabinet began to emerge. Over time, this arrangement became the effective executive branch of government, as it assumed the day-to-day functioning of the British government away from the sovereign. Theoretically, the Prime Minister is primus inter pares (Latin for â€Å"first among equals†) among his/her Cabinet colleagues. While the Prime Minister is the senior Cabinet Minister, s/he is theoretically bound to make executive decisions in a collective fashion with the other Cabinet ministers.The Cabinet, along with the PM, consists of Secretaries of State from the various government departments, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Privy Seal, the President of the Board of Trade, the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Ministers without portfolio. Cabinet meetings are typically held weekly, while Parliament is in session Government departments and the Civil Service The Government of the United Kingdom contains a number of ministries known mainly, though not exclusively as departments, Ministry of Defense.These are politically led by a Government Minister who is often a Secretary of State and member of the Cabinet. He or she may also be supported by a number of junior Ministers. In practice, several government departments and Ministers have respo nsibilities that cover England alone, with devolved bodies having responsibility for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, (for example – the Department of Health), or responsibilities that mainly focus on England (such as the Department for Education). Implementation of the Minister's decisions is carried out by a permanent politically neutral organization known as the civil service.Its constitutional role is to support the Government of the day regardless of which political party is in power. Unlike some other democracies, senior civil servants remain in post upon a change of Government. Administrative management of the Department is led by a head civil servant known in most Departments as a Permanent Secretary. The majority of the civil service staff in fact work in executive agencies, which are separate operational organizations reporting to Departments of State. â€Å"Whitehall† is often used as a metonym for the central core of the Civil Service.This is because m ost Government Departments have headquarters in and around the former Royal Palace Whitehall. Legislatures The UK Parliament is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom (i. e. , there is parliamentary sovereignty), and Government is drawn from and answerable to it. Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. There is also a devolved Scottish Parliament and devolved Assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland, with varying degrees of legislative authority. UK ParliamentHouse of Commons It is a Sand-colored building of Gothic design with large clock-tower. Parliament meets at the Palace of Westminster British House of Commons The Countries of the United Kingdom are divided into parliamentary constituencies of broadly equal population by the four Boundary Commissions. Each constituency elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons at General Elections and, if required, at by-elections. As of 2010 there are 650 constituencies ( there were 646 before that year's general election.Of the 650 MPs, all but one – Lady Sylvia Hermon – belong to a political party. In modern times, all Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition have been drawn from the Commons, not the Lords. Alec Douglas-Home resigned from his peerages days after becoming Prime Minister in 1963, and the last Prime Minister before him from the Lords left in 1902 (the Marquis of Salisbury). One party usually has a majority in Parliament, because of the use of the First Past the Post electoral system, which has been conducive in creating the current two party system.The monarch normally asks a person commissioned to form a government simply whether it can survive in the House of Commons, something which majority governments are expected to be able to do. In exceptional circumstances the monarch asks someone to ‘form a government' with a parliamentary minority which in the event of no party having a majority requires the formati on of a coalition government. This option is only ever taken at a time of national emergency, such as war-time. It was given in 1916 to Andrew Bonar Law, and when he declined, to David Lloyd George and in 1940 to Winston Churchill.A government is not formed by a vote of the House of Commons; it is a commission from the monarch. The House of Commons gets its first chance to indicate confidence in the new government when it votes on the Speech from the Throne (the legislative program proposed by the new government). House of Lords The House of Lords was previously a largely hereditary aristocratic chamber, although including life peers, and Lords Spiritual. It is currently mid-way through extensive reforms, the most recent of these being enacted in the House of Lords Act 1999.The house consists of two very different types of member, the Lords Temporal and Lords Spiritual. Lords Temporal include appointed members (life peers with no hereditary right for their descendants to sit in the house) and ninety-two remaining hereditary peers, elected from among, and by, the holders of titles which previously gave a seat in the House of Lords. The Lords Spiritual represent the established Church of England and number twenty-six: the Five Ancient Sees (Canterbury, York, London, Winchester and Durham), and the 21 next-most senior bishops.The House of Lords currently acts to review legislation initiated by the House of Commons, with the power to propose amendments, and can exercise a suspensive veto. This allows it to delay legislation if it does not approve it for twelve months. However, the use of vetoes is limited by convention and by the operation of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949: the Lords may not veto the â€Å"money bills† or major manifesto promises (see Salisbury convention). Persistent use of the veto can also be overturned by the Commons, under a provision of the Parliament Act 1911.Often governments will accept changes in legislation in order to avoid b oth the time delay, and the negative publicity of being seen to clash with the Lords. However the Lords still retain a full veto in acts which would extend the life of Parliament beyond the 5 year term limit introduced by the Parliament Act 1911. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 outlined plans for a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to replace the role of the Law Lords. The House of Lords was replaced as the final court of appeal on civil cases within the United Kingdom on 1 October 2009, by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.Devolved national legislatures Though the UK parliament remains the sovereign parliament, Scotland has a parliament and Wales and Northern Ireland have assemblies. De jure, each could have its powers broadened, narrowed or changed by an Act of the UK Parliament. However, Scotland has a tradition of popular sovereignty as opposed to parliamentary sovereignty and the fact that the Scottish parliament was established following a referendum would make it p olitically difficult to significantly alter its powers without popular consent.The UK is therefore a unitary state with a devolved system of government. This contrasts with a federal system, in which sub-parliaments or state parliaments and assemblies have a clearly defined constitutional right to exist and a right to exercise certain constitutionally guaranteed and defined functions and cannot be unilaterally abolished by Acts of the central parliament. All three devolved institutions are elected by proportional representation: the Additional Member System is used in Scotland and Wales, and Single Transferable Vote is used in Northern Ireland.England, therefore, is the only country in the UK not to have a devolved English parliament. However, senior politicians of all main parties have voiced concerns in regard to the West Lothian Question, which is raised where certain policies for England are set by MPs from all four constituent nations whereas similar policies for Scotland or Wa les might be decided in the devolved assemblies by legislators from those countries alone.Alternative proposals for English regional government have stalled, following a poorly received referendum on devolved government for the North East of England, which had hitherto been considered the region most in favor of the idea, with the exception of Cornwall, where there is widespread support for a Cornish Assembly, including all five Cornish MPs. England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the United Kingdom. The government has no plans to establish an English parliament or assembly although several pressure groups are calling for one.One of their main arguments is that MPs (and thus voters) from different parts of the UK have inconsistent powers. Currently an MP from Scotland can vote on legislation which affects only England but MPs from England (or indeed Scotland) cannot vote on matters devolved to the Scottish parliament. Indeed, the former Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who is an MP for a Scottish constituency, introduced some laws that only affect England and not his own constituency. This anomaly is known as the West Lothian question.The policy of the UK Government in England was to establish elected regional assemblies with no legislative powers. The London Assembly was the first of these, established in 2000, following a referendum in 1998, but further plans were abandoned following rejection of a proposal for an elected assembly in North East England in a referendum in 2004. Unelected regional assemblies remain in place in eight regions of England. There are two main parties in the United Kingdom: the Conservative Party, and the Labor Party.There is also a significant third party, the Liberal Democrats. The modern Conservative Party was founded in 1834 and is an outgrowth of the Tory movement or party, which began in 1678. Today it is still colloquially referred to as the Tory Party and its members as Tories. The L iberal Democrats were formed in 1988 by a merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a Labor breakaway formed in 1981. The Liberals and SDP had contested elections together as the SDP–Liberal Alliance for seven years before.The modern Liberal Party had been founded in 1859 as an outgrowth of the Whig movement or party (which began at the same time as the Tory party and was its historical rival) as well as the Radical and Peelite tendencies. The Liberal Party was one of the two dominant parties (along with the Conservatives) from its founding until the 1920s, when it rapidly declined and was supplanted on the left by the Labor Party, which was founded in 1900 and formed its first government in 1924.Since that time, the Labor and Conservatives parties have been dominant, with the Liberal Democrats also holding a significant number of seats and increasing their share of the vote in parliamentary general elections in the four elections 1992. Conservatives; The Conservative Party won the largest number of seats at the 2010 general election, returning 307 MPs, though not enough to make an overall majority. As a result of negotiations following the election, they entered a formal coalition with the Liberal Democrats to form a majority government.The Conservative party can trace its origin back to 1662, with the Court Party and the Country Party being formed in the aftermath of the English Civil War. The Court Party soon became known as the Tories, a name that has stuck despite the official name being ‘Conservative'. The term â€Å"Tory † originates from the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678-1681 – the Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of the Roman Catholic Duke of York from the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland, and the Tories were those who opposed it.Both names were originally insults: a â€Å"whiggamore† was a horse drover (See Whiggamore Raid), and a â€Å"tory† (Tà ³raidhe) was an Ir ish term for an outlaw, later applied to Irish Confederates and Irish Royalists, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Generally, the Tories were associated with lesser gentry and the Church of England, while Whigs were more associated with trade, money, larger land holders (or â€Å"land magnates†), expansion and tolerance of Catholicism.The Rochdale Radicals were a group of more extreme reformists who were also heavily involved in the cooperative movement. They sought to bring about a more equal society, and are considered by modern standards to be left-wing. After becoming associated with repression of popular discontent in the years after 1815, the Tories underwent a fundamental transformation under the influence of Robert Peel, himself an industrialist rather than a landowner, who in his 1834 â€Å"Tamworth Manifesto† outlined a new â€Å"Conservative† philosophy of reforming ills while conserving the good.Though Peel's supporters subsequently split from t heir colleagues over the issue of free trade in 1846, ultimately joining the Whigs and the Radicals to form what would become the Liberal Party, Peel's version of the party's underlying outlook was retained by the remaining Tories, who adopted his label of Conservative as the official name of their party. The crushing defeat of the 1997 election saw the Conservative Party lose over half their seats from 1992 and saw the party re-align with public perceptions of them.In 2008, the Conservative Party formed a pact with the Ulster Unionist Party to select joint candidates for European and House of Commons elections; this angered the DUP as by splitting the Unionist vote, republican parties will be elected in some areas. After thirteen years as the official opposition, the Party returned to power as part of a coalition with the Liberal Democrats in 2010. Historically, the party has been the mainland party most pre-occupied by British Unionism, as attested to by the party's full name, the Conservative & Unionist Party.This resulted in the merger between the Conservatives and Joseph Chamberlain's Liberal Unionist Party, composed of former Liberals who opposed Irish home rule. The unionist tendency is still in evidence today, manifesting sometimes as a skepticism or opposition to devolution, firm support for the continued existence of the United Kingdom in the face of separatist nationalism, and a historic link with the cultural unionism of Northern Ireland. Labor; The Labor Party won the second largest number of seats in the House of Commons at the 2010 general election, with 258 MPs.The history of the Labor party goes back to 1900 when a Labor Representation Committee was established which changed its name to â€Å" ­Ã‚ ­The Labor Party† in 1906. After the First World War, this led to the demise of the Liberal Party as the main reformist force in British politics. The existence of the Labor Party on the left of British politics led to a slow waning of energ y from the Liberal Party, which has consequently assumed third place in national politics.After performing poorly in the elections of 1922, 1923 and 1924, the Liberal Party was superseded by the Labor Party as the party of the left. Following two brief spells in minority governments in 1924 and 1929–1931, the Labor Party had its first true victory after World War II in the 1945 â€Å"khaki election†. Throughout the rest of the twentieth century, Labor governments alternated with Conservative governments. The Labor Party suffered the â€Å"wilderness years† of 1951-1964 (three straight General Election defeats) and 1979-1997 (four straight General Election defeats).During this second period, Margaret Thatcher, who became leader of the Conservative party in 1975, made a fundamental change to Conservative policies, turning the Conservative Party into an economic neoliberal party. In the General Election of 1979 she defeated James Callaghan's troubled Labor governme nt after the winter of discontent. For most of the 1980s and the 1990s, Conservative governments under Thatcher and her successor John Major pursued policies of privatization, anti-trade-unionism, and, for a time, monetarism, now known collectively as Thatcherism.The Labor Party elected left-winger Michael Foot as their leader after their 1979 election defeat, and he responded to dissatisfaction with the Labor Party by pursuing a number of radical policies developed by its grass-roots members. In 1981 several right-wing Labor MPs formed a breakaway group called the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a move which split Labor and is widely believed to have made Labor unelectable for a decade. The SDP formed an alliance with the Liberal Party which contested the 1983and 1987 general elections as a centrist alternative to Labor and the Conservatives. After some initial success, the SDP did not prosper (partly due to its unfavorable distribution of votes in the FPTP electoral system), and wa s accused by some of splitting the anti-Conservative vote. The SDP eventually merged with the Liberal Party to form the Liberal Democrats in 1988. Support for the new party has increased since then, and the Liberal Democrats (often referred to as LibDems) in 1997 and 2001 gained an increased number of seats in the House of Commons.The Labor Party was badly defeated in the Conservative landslide of the 1983 general election, and Michael Foot was replaced shortly thereafter by Neil Kinnock as leader. Kinnock expelled the far left Militant tendency group (now called the Socialist Party of England and Wales) and moderated many of the party's policies. Yet he was in turn replaced by John Smith after Labor defeats in the 1987 and 1992 general elections. Tony Blair became leader of the Labor party after John Smith's sudden death from a heart attack in 1994.He continued to move the Labor Party towards the ‘center' by loosening links with the unions and embracing many of Margaret Thatc her's liberal economic policies. This, coupled with the professionalizing of the party machine's approach to the media, helped Labor win a historic landslide in the 1997 General Election, after 18 years of Conservative government. Some observers say the Labor Party had by then morphed from a democratic socialist party to a social democratic party, a process which delivered three general election victories but alienated some of its core base – leading to the formation of the Socialist Labor Party (UK).Liberal Democrats; The Liberal Democrats won the third largest number of seats at the 2010 general election, returning 57 MPs. The Conservative Party failed to win an overall majority, and the Liberal Democrats entered government for the first time as part of a coalition. The Liberal Democrats were formed in 1988 by a merger of the Liberal Party with the Social Democratic Party, but can trace their origin back to the Whigs and the Rochdale Radicals who evolved into the Liberal Pa rty. The term ‘Liberal Party' was first used officially in 1868, though it had been in use colloquially for decades beforehand.The Liberal Party formed a government in 1868 and then alternated with the Conservative Party as the party of government throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century. The Liberal Democrats are heavily a party on Constitutional and Political Reforms, including changing the voting system for General Elections (UK Alternative Vote referendum, 2011), abolishing the House of Lords and replacing it with a 300 member elected Senate, introducing Fixed Five Year Parliaments, and introducing a National Register of Lobbyists.They also claim to champion of fairness and social mobility, notably in government where they have introduced legislation introducing a pupil premium – funding for schools directed at the poorest students to give them an equal chance in life – equal marriage for homosexual couples and increasing the income tax thresho ld so that no one will pay anything on the first  £10,000 they earn. Other parliamentary parties The Green Party of England and Wales gained its second MP, Caroline Lucas, in the 2010 General Election (the first MP was Cynog Dafis, Ceredigion 1992 who was elected on a joint Plaid Cyru/Green Party ticket).It also has seats in the European Parliament, two seats on the London Assembly and around 120 local councilors. The Respect party, a left-wing group that came out of the anti-war movement has one MP, George Galloway. It also has a small number of seats on local councils across the country. There are usually a small number of Independent politicians in parliament with no party allegiance. In modern times, this has usually occurred when a sitting member leaves their party, and some such MPs have been re-elected as independents.The only current Independent MP is Lady Hermon, previously of the Ulster Unionist Party. However, since 1950 only two new members have been elected as indepen dents without having ever stood for a major party: Martin Bell represented the Tatton constituency in Cheshire between 1997 and 2001. He was elected following a â€Å"sleaze† scandal involving the sitting Conservative MP, Neil Hamilton—Bell, a BBC journalist, stood as an anticorruption independent candidate, and the Labor and Liberal Democrat parties withdrew their candidates from the election.Dr. Richard Taylor MP was elected for the Wyre Forest constituency in the 2001 on a platform opposing the closure of Kidderminster hospital. He later established Health Concern, the party under which he ran in 2005. Current political landscape Since winning the largest number of seats and votes in the 2010 general election, the Conservatives under David Cameron are now behind the Labor Party now led by Ed Miliband. Their coalition partners have also experienced a decline in support in opinion polls.At the same time, support for the UK Independence Party has shown a considerable a dvance, with some polls now placing them in third place ahead of the Lib Dems. UKIP's growing strength was illustrated by the result of the Eastleigh by-election in which the party advanced by 24% to take second place from the Conservatives, less than 5% behind the Lib Dems who retained the seat. Local government The UK is divided into a variety of different types of Local Authorities, with different functions and responsibilities.England has a mix of two-tier and single-tier councils in different parts of the country. In Greater London, a unique two-tier system exists, with power shared between the London borough councils, and the Greater London Authority which is headed by an elected mayor. Unitary Authorities are used throughout Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. European Union Further information: European Movement UK, Euroskepticism in the United Kingdom, and Members of the European Parliament from the United Kingdom.The United Kingdom first joined the European Economic Comm unity in January 1973, and has remained a member of the European Union (EU) that it evolved into; UK citizens, and other EU citizens resident in the UK, elect 78 members to represent them in the European Parliament in Brussels and Strasbourg. The UK's membership in the Union has been objected to over questions of sovereignty,[27] and in recent years there have been divisions in both major parties over whether the UK should form greater ties within the EU, or reduce the EU's supranational powers.Opponents of greater European integration are known as â€Å"Euroskeptics†, while supporters are known as â€Å"Europhiles†. Division over Europe is prevalent in both major parties, although the Conservative Party is seen as most divided over the issue, both whilst in Government up to 1997 and after 2010, and between those dates as the opposition. However, the Labor Party is also divided, with conflicting views over UK adoption of the euro whilst in Government (1997–2010) , although the party is largely in favor of further integration where in the country's interest.UK nationalists have long campaigned against European integration. The strong showing of the euroskeptic United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) in the 2004 European Parliament elections has shifted the debate over UK relations with the EU. In March 2008, Parliament decided to not hold a referendum on the ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon, signed in December 2007. [28] This was despite the Labor government promising in 2004 to hold a referendum on the previously proposed Constitution for Europe.

The Sinai Peninsula From Ancient Times to Today

The Sinai Peninsula From Ancient Times to Today Egypts Sinai Peninsula, also known as the Land of Fayrouz meaning turquoise, is a triangular formation at the northeastern end of Egypt and the southwestern end of Israel, it looks like a corkscrew-like cap at the top of the Red Sea and forms a land bridge between the Asian and African land masses. History The Sinai Peninsula has been inhabited since pre-historic  times and has always been a trade route. The peninsula has been a part of Egypt since the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt, circa 3,100 B.C., although there have been periods of foreign occupation over the past 5,000 years. Sinai was called Mafkat or country of turquoise by the ancient Egyptians, which was mined in the peninsula. In ancient times, like its surrounding regions, it has been the treadmill of evaders and conquerors, including, according to biblical legend, the Jews of Moses Exodus escaping Egypt and the ancient Roman, Byzantine and Assyrian Empires. Geography The Suez Canal and the Gulf of Suez border the Sinai Peninsula to the west. Israels Negev Desert borders it to the northeast  and the Gulf of Aqaba laps at its shores to the southeast. The hot, arid, desert-dominated peninsula covers 23,500 square miles. Sinai is also one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinais cities and towns can dip to 3 degrees Fahrenheit. Population and Tourism In 1960, the Egyptian census of Sinai listed a population of about 50,000. Currently, thanks in large part to the tourism industry, the populations is currently estimated at 1.4 million. The peninsulas bedouin population, once the majority, became the minority. Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its natural setting, rich coral reefs offshore and biblical history. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in the Abrahamic faiths. Rich in pastel cliffs and canyons, arid valleys and startling green oases, the desert meets the sparkling sea in a long string of secluded beaches and vivid coral reefs that attract a wealth of underwater life, wrote David Shipler in 1981, The New York Times bureau chief in Jerusalem. Other popular tourist destinations are St Catherines Monastery, which is considered to be the oldest working Christian monastery in the world, and the beach resorts towns of Sharm el-Sheikh, Dahab, Nuweiba and Taba. Most tourists arrive at Sharm el-Sheikh International Airport, through Eilat, Israel, and the Taba Border Crossing, by road from Cairo or by ferry from Aqaba in Jordan. Recent Foreign Occupations In periods of foreign occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire from 1517 to 1867   and the United Kingdom from 1882 to 1956. Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis of 1956 and during the Six-Day War of 1967. In 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. By 1982, as a result of the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979, Israel had withdrawn from all of the Sinai Peninsula except the contentious territory of Taba, which Israel later returned to Egypt in 1989.